Graphene Oxide and Visible Light:

An Advanced Platform for Water Disinfection

The debate surrounding water generally focuses mainly on its availability, but having the resource does not always ensure its good quality. Threats such as microbiological contamination, heavy metals, and organic compounds require the development of technologies capable of separating, transforming, or eliminating contaminants efficiently and sustainably.

In this context, graphene oxide (GO), a multifunctional nanomaterial derived from graphene and, at the same time, composed mainly of carbon atoms, exhibits a particularly attractive characteristic: a large surface area and interfaces capable of modifying physical and chemical phenomena at very small scales. Unlike graphene, GO contains oxygen-containing functional groups that promote its interaction with water and with different chemical species. Therefore, it can be used not only as an independent material, but also as a platform for constructing materials.

Real-World Applications of Multifunctional Materials 

The capacity to form hybrid materials opens the door to diverse applications across different sectors. However, to reach their full potential, it is necessary to develop research based on materials science and with a multidisciplinary approach that makes it possible to understand how, in this case, nanomaterials interact with living organisms and with contaminants in real-world environments.

A clear example of this approach is the doctoral thesis entitled “Photocatalytic Treatment of Biological Organisms in Water Using Graphene Oxide Doped with Titanium Dioxide (TiO₂) and Bismuth Vanadate (BiVO₄) Nanocomposites,” completed in 2021 by Dr. Christeena Theresa Thomas, under the supervision of Drs. Velumani Subramaniam and Benoît Schoefs. This was a collaborative project between the Center for Research and Advanced Studies of the National Polytechnic Institute (CINVESTAV-IPN, Mexico) and the University of Le Mans (France).

Use of Heterostructures for Water Disinfection 

To achieve water decontamination, the thesis strategy consisted of designing hybrid architectures (heterostructures) of graphene oxide with two light-sensitive semiconductor nanomaterials (TiO₂ and BiVO₄).

The objective of this integration was to leverage the electronic and surface properties of graphene oxide to efficiently channel and transport photogenerated electric charges, preventing this energy from dissipating. Optimizing the activation of the semiconductors through incident light (photocatalysis) triggers a chemical reaction in the water. This phenomenon uses light energy together with the catalyst material to destroy contaminants without being consumed in the process, generating highly decontaminating reactive oxygen species or free radicals.

“One aspect relevant to Mexican industry is that the graphene oxide used in the study was purchased from Energeia-Graphenemex (Mexico) and used as a raw material, without requiring any additional purification step.”

How Were the Heterostructures Prepared? 

The heterostructures were formulated by combining TiO₂ and BiVO₄ nanoparticles in graphene oxide dispersions at concentrations ranging from 0.5 to 2.5% by weight. Through the implemented methodology, the association of the semiconductor nanoparticles with the GO sheets was consolidated through noncovalent physical interactions, demonstrating that it is not always essential to resort to chemical functionalization of the material to give it a new function; instead, efficient hybrid architectures can be designed by strictly leveraging the complementary properties of each component.

“Heterostructure: a solid structure formed by joining two or more materials with different properties to create an interface with characteristics that none would have individually.”

Microbiological Inactivation 

When semiconductors are activated by light energy, they generate powerful oxidizing molecules known as reactive oxygen species (ROS), which are capable of destroying the cellular structures of contaminants.

However, not all materials respond to sunlight in the same way. For example, pure titanium dioxide (TiO₂) depends almost entirely on ultraviolet (UV) light, which represents only 4% of solar energy. BiVO₄, by contrast, can be activated by the visible region of the spectrum. Yet, although it is excellent at absorbing light economically and safely, it has the major disadvantage that its electric charges tend to recombine very quickly before they can act. It is at this point that graphene oxide was identified as having the potential to act as a platform that captures and stabilizes these charges to enhance disinfection.

To verify the efficiency of the heterostructures in eliminating pathogens, the inactivation of the model bacterium Escherichia coli K12 was evaluated.

The experiment consisted of exposing the nanocomposites to simulated visible light in contaminated aqueous suspensions, in order to measure the rate of microbial destruction and demonstrate the project’s potential as an ecological and environmentally friendly alternative. At the end of the process, the water was filtered through nylon membranes to recover the heterostructures.

Results 

Among the different formulations studied, the heterostructure containing 1.5% GO coupled with 98.5% TiO₂, at a dosage of 1.05 g/L, achieved 99.9% disinfection efficiency after 30 minutes of visible-light irradiation. In comparison, tests conducted using only TiO₂ (without GO) produced only approximately 20% disinfection over the same period.

Moreover, observations of the BiVO₄ heterostructures combined with 1.5% graphene oxide also yielded extremely interesting data. Although their disinfection efficiency was lower (89%) and required twice the irradiation time (60 minutes) compared with TiO₂, it is important to highlight the added value provided by the presence of GO in the heterostructure. That is, when BiVO₄ was evaluated individually (without GO), its effectiveness reached only 30%. Most noteworthy is that this result was achieved with an extremely small amount of material, using only 0.1 g/L in the solution, which represents one tenth of the dose used with TiO₂ (1.05 g/L).

These figures are proof of the synergistic effect between the materials, given that, thanks to the presence of graphene oxide, both semiconductors were transformed into highly efficient catalysts.

Microalgae Removal 

The excellent results obtained with the heterostructures against Escherichia coli K12 set the stage for taking the study to another level. That is, using the same mechanisms to solve the problems associated with uncontrolled microalgae growth.

When microalgae proliferate excessively in rivers, lakes, or coastal waters, they not only color the water, but also consume oxygen and, in many cases, release toxins that are dangerous to living organisms.

“Microalgae need light to survive, and nanomaterials require that same light to become activated and destroy them.”

Unlike the E. coli tests, for the microalgae tests, the study designed GO/TiO₂ pellets under extreme pressure; due to the density of the compacted material, when placed in the water, the pellets immediately settled to the bottom of the container and were activated with artificial light for 4 hours, while the algae floated on the surface. The species exposed were Anabaena (freshwater) and Phaeodactylum (a marine alga).

Results 

To scientifically demonstrate the death of the microalgae, the researchers analyzed chlorophyll fluorescence kinetics and induction. While the control group (not exposed to the pellets) maintained intact and stable chlorophyll levels under light, the samples exposed to the purifying pellets showed a drastic decline in fluorescence.

Likewise, the definitive comparison was made after allowing a full night to pass in complete darkness. The following day, the control group immediately recovered its ability to photosynthesize when exposed to light, whereas the microalgae that had been in contact with the graphene oxide and titanium pellets showed no sign of cellular life, demonstrating that their destruction had been complete and irreversible.

Finally, a highly relevant finding from an ecological perspective was the reusability of the pellets after several cycles of activation and water purification. However, material detached from the pellet was observed, probably as a consequence of erosion. This demonstrates that, although compaction represents a promising strategy for facilitating recovery of the nanomaterial, mechanical stability and material release are points to consider prior to large-scale application.

Conclusion 

This research demonstrates that graphene nanotechnology has real potential for use as a platform for designing photocatalytic materials capable of significantly increasing the activity of certain semiconductors.

In this research, the graphene oxide supplied by the Mexican company Energeia-Graphenemex had significant value as a raw material for the development of the heterostructures studied. Although the company was not involved in the development or execution of the research, the fact that the study used graphene oxide produced through an established industrial process represents an element of interest for the continuity and maturation of this line of research.

Having a nanomaterial that can already be produced at industrial scale allows future stages to begin with an available and reproducible product, rather than depending exclusively on material synthesis at laboratory scale. This opens the possibility of continuing to study the same formulations, optimizing their performance, and evaluating their behavior under conditions that are increasingly closer to a real-world application.

In this way, the availability of nanostructured products such as those developed by Energeia-Graphenemex can help bridge the gap between laboratory research and technological development, providing a materials platform on which to continue exploring advanced applications for water treatment and disinfection.

Prepared by: EF/Dania Hernández 

References

1. Thomas, C.-T., Ravichandran, M., Santoyo-Salazar, J., Schoefs, B., Velumani, S., Castaneda, H., & Jantrania, A. (2021). Graphene oxide decorated TiO₂ and BiVO₄ nanocatalysts for enhanced visible-light-driven photocatalytic bacterial inactivation. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology A: Chemistry, 418, 113374. 10.1016/j.jphotochem.2021.113374

The future of water is nano:

How graphene is revolutionizing industrial filtration.

Graphene materials are a family of carbon nanostructures organized in a sheet-like hexagonal pattern, which are in turn classified according to the number of layers, morphology, and surface chemistry. However, the most well-known is graphene, which essentially consists of carbon atoms, famous for its high mechanical strength, among many other thermal, electrical properties, etc., and graphene oxide which, in addition to carbon, contains oxygenated functional groups that favor its interaction with water and other substances. 

In the water technology sector, graphene materials are transforming the design of nanotechnological filtration barriers. By being integrated into the modification of both filters and membranes, graphene has the challenge of meeting two major objectives: The first is to optimize selectivity, that is, to improve control over the components that manage to pass through the barrier and those that are rejected. This is achieved through the creation of nanochannels between the sheets that limit the passage of contaminants by size exclusion, or rather, through chemical adsorption mechanisms. The second objective is to maximize filtration efficiency. When incorporated into the structure, graphene reinforces the mechanical properties of the base polymers and provides notable resistance to fouling (antifouling). Consequently, these improvements mitigate the pressure drop, maintain a constant water flow, and reduce energy consumption during system operation. 

Are there filters and membranes made solely of graphene? 

A frequent mistake is to think that a filtering material can be manufactured solely with graphene. This is because, although this family of nanomaterials is sheet-shaped, its size is so small that, in order to be used as a membrane or filter, it is necessary to immobilize them on a porous support or incorporate them into a polymeric matrix. Therefore, it is most convenient to conceive these nanostructures as materials capable of modifying or complementing the properties of pre-existing materials, but from a nano perspective. 

“A nanometer is equivalent to 0.000001 millimeters” 

“The difference between a filter and a membrane lies in the pore size, the contaminant separation mechanism, and the pressure required to operate the system” 

How are graphene materials integrated into a filtering material? 

In the race to achieve the objectives, the scientific community has studied different methods to incorporate graphene into filters and membranes. Some methodologies are relatively simple and fast, while others require more complex processes. 

The most common reported methods are: 

1. Filtration deposition 

It consists of preparing a dispersion of graphene material at a known concentration, to later filter it with a commercial membrane (e.g., polysulfone, polyamide, polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), polyethersulfone (PES), cellulose or nylon). During the process, the graphene material nanoparticles randomly arrange themselves, forming an ideally continuous film on the base polymer. 

2. Dip coating 

It consists of introducing a commercial membrane, like those mentioned in the previous method, into a dispersion of graphene material for a certain time. The immersion aims for the nanoparticles to adsorb onto the membrane to form a film. 

These first two methods are probably the most used in the laboratory. They are simple and fast procedures, but with the disadvantages of being difficult to scale, not very stable, and not very uniform. Although with the advantage of providing relevant information about the behavior of each material. 

3. Layer-by-layer 

With this technique, more ordered structures are formed, as it consists of depositing intercalated layers of positively and negatively charged graphene material. 

Among its advantages is excellent control of thickness, uniformity, and selectivity. In fact, this method has shown interesting results for applications that require greater selectivity and resistance to fouling. However, the manufacturing process is relatively slow for mass production; it requires additional chemical modifications to the nanomaterial to change its charge, and the membrane can be so compact that the water flow is likely limited. 

4. Direct blending with polymers 

In industrial terms, this method is the alternative with the greatest potential. Instead of depositing the graphene material on a finished product, the strategy is to take advantage of existing processes and infrastructure to incorporate the nanomaterial during the manufacture of the filtering material. In this way, graphene is integrated throughout the architecture of the final product from its origin. 

“The challenge of graphene is not to prove whether it works or not inside a laboratory, but to integrate it into industrial processes.” 

From the laboratory to the market 

Fortunately, today, talking about graphene or graphene materials in real applications is no longer a milestone of the future, in fact, it is a reality that is transforming industries. So much so, that starting in 2022, industrial filters, portable cartridges, and graphene-based nanofiltration systems for water purification and contaminant removal began to enter the market. However, although this transition from the laboratory to the industry is a big leap, there are still few companies that have managed to bring this technology to industrial production, for example: 

• Clean TeQ Water (Australia): Through its subsidiary NematiQ, it manufactures rolls of graphene oxide nanofiltration membranes for treatment plants; 

• Medica S.p.A. (Italy): With a medical and domestic focus, it operates through its Graphil line; 

• Icon Life Saver (United Kingdom): Developed Graphene:Ultra portable cartridges for the removal of heavy metals and chemicals; 

• GYC Group (Asia): Provides composite filters and customized graphene additives. 

Despite these success stories, the supply remains small for such high need and demand. 

In this context, research carried out at the Autonomous University of San Luis Potosí (UASLP), under the direction of Dr. Mildred Quintana, studied the potential of different combinations of graphene materials for water filtration. The study entitled “Design of graphene nanocomposites for the development of membranes” was carried out as part of a 2025 doctoral thesis. The research compared the performance of graphene oxide and graphene heterostructures synthesized in the laboratory, with their counterpart designed from materials produced industrially by Graphenemex®. 

The research was developed in two stages. First, the heterostructures synthesized in the laboratory were designed and studied to obtain reference data, and subsequently, their counterparts were prepared with Graphenemex® materials. The heterostructures were immobilized on PTFE and polyester supports by filtration, to then evaluate their performance regarding water permeation, dye removal, Na⁺ and Cl⁻ rejection, among other evaluations. 

The comparison between both systems was made to determine if the materials produced industrially by Graphenemex® could reproduce the results offered by the heterostructures synthesized under controlled laboratory conditions. 

“The materials produced by Graphenemex® retained the ability to interact and form functional heterostructures” 

The results obtained are relevant because, within the different systems studied in the thesis, selectivities greater than 80% and permeances greater than 2500 L/(m²·h·bar) were achieved. These data coincide with other studies in which GO membranes deposited on nylon membranes have achieved rejections greater than 90% for organic molecules. 

It should be clarified that the results of the thesis do not represent a finished commercial membrane, but they are part of a fundamental stage on the path to its technological maturation with 100% Mexican science and technology. The next step is to perfect this knowledge and transfer it to an increasingly relevant environment. In this case, through the immobilization of the heterostructures in a filtering material. 

At Graphenemex®, we feel very proud of the possibility of being part of a solution to such an important global problem. The development of these technologies is not just an engineering achievement, it is a commitment to the planet and future generations.

From the Laboratory to Industry:

How Graphenemex Graphene Drives Innovation in Mexico (Part II) 

In Part I of this article, we discussed how incorporating graphene into a product or process does not begin with a formulation or the purchase of a nanomaterial, but rather with the willingness to innovate. 

If a company or prospective customer has identified a challenge that could potentially be solved through the use of graphene, and there is a willingness to invest time, resources, and human talent in a research and development process, a new question naturally arises: 

How do I get started? 

The answer is straightforward, although it requires commitment, collaboration, and work. The following outlines the development pathway that Graphenemex® has built through more than ten years of experience producing graphene-based materials and collaborating with different industries in the adaptation and implementation of this technology. 

Understanding Graphene and Its Possibilities 

Before attempting to initiate experimental trials, it is important for the interested party to understand, at least in general terms, what graphene is, what distinguishes its different forms, and what types of benefits it can provide. It is not necessary to become a graphene specialist. Graphenemex® offers complete openness and technical support precisely for that purpose. However, it is highly recommended to involve personnel from technical, research and development, quality assurance, and production departments in order to address questions and gain a clear understanding of the actual capabilities and limitations of this technology. 

Likewise, Graphenemex® needs to understand the general characteristics of the client’s process. To this end, it is useful to share information related to the raw materials employed, formulations and general manufacturing processes, quality control methods, as well as the regulations or specifications that the final product must satisfy. It is not necessary to disclose trade secrets or complete formulations; however, sufficient information should be provided to enable an understanding of the system into which graphene is intended to be incorporated. 

Information Protection 

Depending on the nature of the project, it may be advisable to formalize Non-Disclosure Agreements (NDAs) before exchanging detailed technical information. These agreements help protect both the client’s proprietary knowledge and developments, as well as the methodologies, materials, and accumulated expertise of Graphenemex®. Confidentiality promotes a more open and efficient collaboration, allowing information to be shared without compromising the intellectual property of either party. 

Material Selection 

The term graphene encompasses an entire family of carbon-based materials. Its most widely recognized variants include graphene itself, graphene oxide, and reduced graphene. However, this family is considerably broader than what is commonly described in the literature as standard materials. This is because each producer employs its own synthesis methodology, with or without additional functionalization processes. It is precisely at this point that differences become most evident when the development stage begins. 

As Graphenemex® manufactures its own graphene-based materials, it can recommend the material type with the highest probability of success for a particular application. In some cases, conventionally produced graphene materials can interact adequately with the customer’s matrix without requiring additional modifications. This is particularly important because it can significantly reduce both development time and costs. However, when compatibility is limited, the possibility of performing surface chemical modifications or employing coupling agents to promote interaction with the raw materials used can be evaluated.

Compatibility Testing 

To fully leverage graphene’s characteristics, it must be integrated into a three-dimensional matrix capable of maintaining it in a dispersed and stabilized state, thereby enabling the balanced transfer of its properties throughout the system. 

Consequently, this stage seeks to identify which of the raw materials present in the formulation can serve as a carrier or vehicle to facilitate the integration of graphene into the matrix. Likewise, this phase often provides guidance regarding the most appropriate stage or portion of the manufacturing process for incorporating graphene into the system. 

Exploratory Trials 

Once the most compatible material or materials have been identified, it is important to conduct small-scale exploratory trials to evaluate different graphene concentrations, as well as alternative integration methods for the new system or product. 

This is necessary because, just as there is no single type of graphene, there is also no standard dosage or universal method for taking advantage of its properties. The good news is that, in many polymer systems, coatings, and resin-based formulations, very low graphene loadings by weight are often sufficient to produce significant improvements, provided that the graphene is properly distributed throughout the supporting matrix. 

Testing Under Relevant Operating Conditions 

After identifying the most compatible graphene material and the effective dosage range at laboratory scale, it becomes possible to schedule trials under actual processing conditions while monitoring the quality parameters normally used by the customer. 

In this regard, the development of graphene-based applications should be understood as a shared learning process in which the customer contributes expertise regarding their product, while Graphenemex® contributes its experience in graphene technology. The combination of these complementary capabilities is what ultimately makes it possible to address a real challenge or achieve a specific development objective. 

Graphene in Agriculture:

The Silent Revolution That Will Feed the World 

Optimizing food production with fewer resources and minimal environmental impact remains a constant challenge for agriculture in the face of growing global demand. In this context, over the past decade, experts in nanotechnology have initiated multiple research lines focused on graphene, aiming to generate evidence of its effects on plant species and, consequently, evaluate its feasibility for subsequent use in the agricultural industry. 

What is the importance of graphene for agriculture? 

From a physicochemical standpoint, graphene is a two-dimensional sheet of carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal lattice, only one atom thick. This seemingly simple structure is responsible for its extraordinary properties, including electrical and thermal conductivity, mechanical strength, hydrophobicity, among many others, which collectively are unmatched by any other material.  

“Surface chemistry, concentration, and interaction mechanisms of graphene are critical factors for improving agricultural productivity.” 

On the other hand, graphene oxide (GO) is the most extensively studied variant due to its surface chemistry, characterized by the presence of hydroxyl, epoxide, carbonyl, and carboxyl groups. These functional groups transform graphene’s inherently hydrophobic nature into a hydrophilic form, enabling not only the formation of stable and biocompatible aqueous dispersions but also converting it into a chemical exchange platform capable of anchoring nutrients, capturing contaminants, and interacting with other nanoparticles, molecules, or components of agricultural interest. 

A practical example is the potential of GO as a fertilizer coadjuvant. As is well known, one of the major issues with fertilizers is their low efficiency, since a significant portion volatilizes or leaches, contaminating water bodies and soils. In this case, it is hypothesized that the functional groups distributed across the graphene surface can encapsulate nutrients and subsequently release them gradually, preventing losses and, consequently, reducing environmental contamination.  

“While graphene provides the structural foundation and physical properties, it is graphene oxide that enables its practical use in agriculture, as it translates graphene’s properties into a language that living systems can understand.” 

Below is a chronological overview of some of the most relevant advances in graphene research applied to agriculture: 

Between 2010 and 2012, researchers in China and the United States studied the impact of GO on lettuce, rice, and tomato crops. By exposing seeds to aqueous solutions containing 0.001 to 0.1 g/L of GO, the primary objective was to determine its penetration capacity and possible effects on germination. Surprisingly, scientists observed that at low concentrations, GO enhanced germination, root growth, and photosynthesis, possibly by facilitating water uptake and triggering enzymatic activation. 

Between 2013 and 2016, research continued to better explain these phenomena. Instead of merely exposing seeds to GO dispersions, scientists designed experiments that incorporated environmental variables, such as plant growth in pots. This allowed the analysis of factors like water availability and nutrient dynamics, leading to the conclusion that graphene oxide could indeed retain water, improve seed hydration, and adsorb nutrients, keeping them available near the root zone. In other words, GO was found to optimize the plant microenvironment. 

Given these findings, it became evident that studies needed to be conducted in more representative environments. Thus, between 2016 and 2019, researchers in India and China extended experiments to greenhouses, hydroponic systems, and full crop cycles, particularly in rice and wheat. They evaluated biomass, photosynthesis, and even quantified plant hormones. Results consistently showed that GO acted as a biostimulant, promoting growth and improving photosynthetic efficiency. 

With so many positive outcomes, the focus shifted from whether graphene enhanced plant growth to whether it could help plants survive under adverse conditions. Consequently, between 2019 and 2021, researchers in the United States and Europe discovered that GO not only promotes growth but also enhances plant survival under drought and salinity stress, as explained below:

Salinity 

To simulate saline conditions, sodium chloride solutions ranging from 50 to 120 mM were used to induce water loss, ionic imbalance, and oxidative stress in plants. Importantly, in the presence of GO—whether applied to soil, via foliar spraying, or in hydroponic systems—plants maintained ionic balance, increased antioxidant enzyme activity, and preserved photosynthetic performance. 

Drought 

Various methodologies are typically used to simulate drought conditions, such as reducing or suspending irrigation, or employing agents like polyethylene glycol to lower water potential without physically removing water. In all cases, GO integration follows a similar approach: direct application to the soil, followed by evaluation of plant responses. One key observation was that under drought conditions, GO does not always internalize within the plant but may remain in the soil, retaining water, reducing evaporation, and increasing water availability duration. In this sense, GO can function as a soil conditioner. 

Oxidative Stress 

In summary, both salinity and drought induce oxidative stress in plants, defined as an imbalance caused by excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS), commonly known as free radicals, which can lead to cellular damage or death. In this context, studies indicate that while GO does not prevent stress factors, it enhances plant resilience by activating antioxidant enzymes, retaining water, enabling osmotic adjustment, and regulating hormonal responses. 

Thus, between 2022 and 2025, particularly in India, the concept of “nano-priming” emerged. This technique involves the preconditioning of seeds or plants through controlled hydration to activate their metabolism prior to actual growth, with the aim of improving germination and stress tolerance. To date, nano-priming with GO has demonstrated improved germination rates, stronger root systems, activation of antioxidant defenses, and enhanced stress response. 

With all these scientific advances, graphene oxide is increasingly consolidating its role as a key agricultural tool to improve soil microenvironment conditions, optimize water usage, and strengthen crop resilience. 

Consequently, Energeia-Graphenemex reaffirms its commitment to Mexican innovation through a collaboration with the Bionanotechnology Laboratory of the Institute of Physics (UASLP), led by Dr. Daniela Salado. Within the framework of the Institutional Doctorate in Materials Science and Engineering (DICIM-UASLP), and with the participation of student Sarahi Josefina Estrada Loredo, a research line was launched in 2025 to analyze the interaction of nanomaterials—including graphene and graphene oxide (Graphenemex®)—with strategic crops. We look forward to sharing the results of this important project in the near future. 

Editing:  EF/Dania Hernández 

References 

1. Niu, Y.-X., Yao, X.-Y., Won, J. H., Shen, Z.-K., Liu, C., Yin, W., Xia, X., & Wang, H.-L. (2026). Application of graphene oxide nanomaterials in crop plants and forest plants. Forests, 17(1), 94. https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010094 

2. Chen, Z., Zhao, J., Cao, J., Zhao, Y., Huang, J., Zheng, Z., Li, W., Jiang, S., Qiao, J., Xing, B., & Zhang, J. (2022). Opportunities for graphene, single-walled and multi-walled carbon nanotube applications in agriculture: A review. Crop Design, 1, 100006. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropd.2022.100006 

3. Yang, Y., Zhang, R., Zhang, X., Chen, Z., Wang, H., & Li, P. C. H. (2022). Effects of graphene oxide on plant growth: A review. Plants, 11(21), 2826. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11212826