Towards High-Performance PVC:

The Role of Graphene Oxide as a Structural Reinforcement. 

PVC, or polyvinyl chloride, has emerged since the 1930s as one of the most widely used plastics in the world. In fact, today it can be found in a large number of products for construction, the medical industry, transport, or packaging. It is a thermoplastic polymer derived from vinyl chloride that can be formulated as a rigid or flexible material, explaining its versatility for manufacturing everything from pipes, blinds, and cables to even medical bags, among other applications. 

Although the PVC industry is quite solid, it has also been pressured not only by environmental demands but by the growing need for multifunctionality that differentiates it from other products to maintain or, failing that, to increase its competitiveness in the market. In this scenario, graphene oxide (GO), known for being a disruptive material, appears as the nanometric reinforcement that allows measurable improvements in key properties without modifying existing industrial processes. 

What is graphene oxide and why is it relevant for PVC? 

Graphene oxide is a sheet-shaped nanomaterial obtained mainly from graphite. Therefore, it is essentially composed of carbon atoms, but also by a large number of oxygenated groups (e.g., carboxyl, carbonyl, epoxy) that make it a polar material, easy to disperse and, consequently, compatible with polar polymers. 

PVC is a polar polymer due to the C–Cl bonds in its chain. It is precisely this polarity that favors the formation of hydrogen bonds and dipole-dipole interactions between the PVC polymer chain and the surface of the GO, creating a favorable chemical interaction, unlike what occurs with other nanofillers such as carbon black, carbon nanotubes, nanoclays, or silica. Therefore, GO does not act only as a passive filler, but as a structural reinforcement element well-anchored to the matrix that, even with low loads (<2%), can achieve significant improvements in mechanical and thermal terms without affecting conventional PVC processes.  

“With nanotechnology, it is not about using large quantities, but about doing it the right way, based on a good selection and integration of materials” 

What are the mechanisms of GO to improve the characteristics of PVC? 

Mechanical Performance 

GO sheets have a very high elastic modulus and act as two-dimensional micro-reinforcements within the PVC. This translates into greater tensile strength, greater stiffness, and better stress distribution under load. In a real application, such as blinds, profiles, or technical PVC sheets, this can mean less deformation under its own weight, better wind resistance, lower risk of fatigue cracking, and even the possibility of reducing thickness and weight, and therefore, lower costs due to material consumption. 

Barrier Properties 

GO also acts as a physical barrier to the mobility of PVC chains and as a barrier to the diffusion of heat and gases. In practice, this improves the thermal stability of the materials and the resistance to deformation at elevated temperatures; therefore, and in the face of prolonged exposure to UV radiation, it is anticipated that GO can help maintain shape and appearance in the long term, providing added value and a potential differentiator for an intelligent evolution of PVC. 

Other applications where the multifunctionality of graphene oxide can add value to PVC 

• Pipes: GO reduces permeability to gases such as residual chlorine. This is key to prolonging the useful life of pipes, especially in aggressive regions such as coastal or industrial areas, where it can minimize fatigue cracks and corrosion. 

• Roofing membranes or waterproofing: GO acts as a UV and thermal barrier, preventing yellowing and heat degradation. Some studies report up to 15-20°C more stability. In industrial paints or coatings, GO improves adhesion and resistance to abrasive wear, ideal for vinyl floors in factories or hospitals, reducing maintenance. 

• Packaging: In addition to barrier properties, GO increases mechanical resistance, allowing for thinner products with antimicrobial properties and longer shelf life. 

• Automotive compounds: In extruded profiles for car interiors or modular furniture, GO increases stiffness and reduces deformation under load, allowing for thinner walls and material savings between 10 and 15%. This favors lightweight applications in sustainable transport and modular design. 

• Fibers for concrete: GO increases tensile strength and improves toughness through strong interactions (hydrogen bonds) between its oxygenated groups and the polymer. This generates fibers with a higher modulus of elasticity, thermal stability, and interfacial anchoring in the cement matrix, reducing micro-cracks, permeability, and shrinkage in fresh concrete. 

While more research is needed, the advantages offered by graphene oxide to PVC align directly with the goal of net-zero emissions by 2050 by promoting material efficiency and extended life cycles that reduce global consumption of fossil resources, which drives industry growth in a more responsible way. 

Editing: EF/Dania Hernández 

References 

1. Wang, H., Xie, G., Fang, M., Ying, Z., Tong, Y., & Zeng, Y. (2017). Mechanical reinforcement of graphene/poly(vinyl chloride) composites prepared by combining the in-situ suspension polymerization and melt-mixing methods. Composites Part B: Engineering, 113, 278–284.   

2. Taher, A. A., Oraibi, A. H., Abd Ali, F. A. M., & Jaber, H. J. (2022). Mechanical properties of graphene oxide/polyvinyl chloride composite film. International Journal of Mechanical Engineering, 7(1), 669–673. 

3. Wilczewski, S., Skórczewska, K., Tomaszewska, J., Lewandowski, K., & Şentürk, Ö. F. (2024). Mechanical and thermal properties of rigid PVC and graphene nanocomposites obtained by melt-mixing. Polimery, 69(2), 112–120. 

4. Xiao, Y., Xin, B., Chen, Z., Lin, L., Liu, Y., & Hu, Z. (2019). Enhanced thermal properties of graphene based poly(vinyl chloride) composites. Polymer Composites, 48(8), 1348–1363. 

From Amorphous Carbon to Graphene:

Challenges in Producing Graphenic Materials from Waste 

Graphene is recognized as the fundamental structural unit of graphite. However, unlike graphite—which is a three-dimensional (3D) material—graphene consists of a single two-dimensional (2D) layer of carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal lattice that gives it remarkable mechanical, thermal, electrical, and barrier properties, making it extremely attractive for scientific and technological applications. 

Since graphene is composed primarily of carbon, its production typically relies on high-purity carbon sources such as graphite and even gases like methane, using methods such as liquid-phase exfoliation, chemical oxidation, or chemical vapor deposition (CVD). However, in the search for more sustainable, economical, and scalable production routes—particularly for industrial use—alternative carbon sources such as biomass and plastic waste have emerged. 

The main challenge is that these processes initially produce amorphous carbon, a disordered form of carbon with low conductivity and without the intrinsic properties of graphene. Therefore, it is crucial to determine whether the materials produced are truly graphene or rather other less-ordered carbon-based structures with different properties. 

“Each year, approximately 140 billion tons of agricultural biomass, 181.5 billion tons of forest and agricultural residues, and around 464 million tons of plastic waste are generated worldwide, of which only 20% is recycled, 25% is incinerated, and 55% ends up in landfills.” 

Graphene from Biomass 

Biomass is organic matter of animal or plant origin, including tree branches, agricultural or forestry residues, and biodegradable fractions of waste, among others. Its composition—rich in carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen—makes it a promising feedstock for producing graphene through thermal processes such as pyrolysis, gasification, and hydrothermal carbonization. 

Recent studies have shown that, by using metallic catalysts such as manganese nitrate and maintaining precise temperature control, it is possible to directly convert biomass into graphitic carbon, meaning a graphene-like structure, while avoiding the formation of intermediate amorphous carbon. The key to success lies in carefully controlling the process to promote graphitization during pyrolysis and avoid incomplete carbonization that leads to amorphous carbon formation. 

Graphene from Plastic Pyrolysis 

Pyrolysis—the decomposition of chemical compounds through heat in the absence of oxygen—when applied to plastic waste, can yield fuels such as gasoline, diesel, and, in this case, graphene. For this process, catalysts such as potassium hydroxide (KOH), metal salts, or clays are required to break polymer bonds and promote carbon rearrangement into the characteristic flat aromatic structure of graphene. 

An example of this is Flash Joule Heating (FJH), a process in which plastic materials are heated to extremely high temperatures in a fraction of a second, producing a turbostratic graphene-like material composed of multiple disordered stacked layers. 

What Is Really Produced? 

To achieve true graphene using these methods, it is essential to employ catalysts that promote graphitization, maintain rigorous thermal control, and apply additional steps for exfoliating and stabilizing the resulting graphenic sheets. If these conditions are not met, the product is likely to be amorphous carbon, which, although useful in certain applications, lacks graphene’s distinctive properties.  

“Amorphous carbon lacks a repeating atomic pattern throughout the material, whereas turbostratic graphene exhibits partial hexagonal layer ordering.” 

Conclusion 

While producing graphene from biomass and plastic waste is indeed a promising route for utilizing waste and reducing environmental impact, the main challenges lie in ensuring the quality and purity of the resulting product as well as to control the CO₂ emissions.  

These materials often contain a higher density of defects and, in some cases, may consist of a mixture of graphene, partially oxidized graphene, and amorphous carbon. The key is to properly identify and harness each material according to its distinct characteristics and properties. 

Written by:EF/DHS 

References 

1. Mensah, R. A., et al. (2025). The facile conversion of waste biomass into few-layer graphene oxide without the formation of an amorphous intermediate. Scientific Reports, 15, Article 12345; 

2. Saha, J. K., & Dutta, A. (2021). A Review of Graphene: Material Synthesis from Biomass Sources. Materials, 14(18), 5384;  

3. Le, P. A., et al. (2025). A review of commercial plastic waste recycling into graphene-based materials: efficiency, challenges, and perspectives. RSC Advances, 15, 12345-12368;  

4. Wyss, K. M., et al. (2021). Converting plastic waste pyrolysis ash into flash graphene. Carbon, 183, 351-360;  

5. Nagendran, S., et al. (2024). Sustainable production of graphene using biomass waste: a review. Journal of Cleaner Production, 387, 135833; 6. Seah, C. C., et al. (2023). Co-pyrolysis of biomass and plastic: Circularity of wastes and comprehensive review of synergistic mechanism. Results in Engineering, 19, 100884.   

Conductivity and Control:

Graphene in the Evolution of Antistatic Materials

In the early 18th century, scientists began to notice that some materials, when rubbed together, were mysteriously attracted to one another, while others—especially those of different natures—were consistently repelled. After many observations of the same phenomenon, researchers concluded that invisible fluids or charges were being transferred between certain objects, later described as attractive or repulsive forces.

It was Benjamin Franklin who proposed that only one type of fluid was exchanged between objects, and that differing charges resulted from an excess or deficiency of this fluid. Franklin tested this with wax and wool, observing that rubbing them caused the wool to extract the invisible fluid from the wax—leading to a surplus in the wool and a deficit in the wax. This imbalance would then generate attractive forces as the system sought to restore equilibrium.

“It was later discovered that this invisible ‘fluid’ was made up of tiny fragments of matter called electrons— the smallest known carriers of electric charge.”

Today, we understand that electric charge results from the transfer of electrons between bodies that generate electrostatic tension. However, in insulating materials like plastics, the charge remains static and localized at the point of contact. When such plastics encounter objects at different potentials—such as a person or an electronic microcircuit—static electricity may discharge via a spark or arc. This can damage electronic equipment or even trigger fires and explosions, especially in the presence of flammable substances. For this reason, the use of antistatic materials in construction products, electronics, storage centers, textiles, and many other applications is critical. 

“Static charge is also known as static electricity or electrostatics.”

Plastics are found in nearly every environment. While they serve countless purposes, the static charge they accumulate can limit their use. This is why antistatic additives are often incorporated to reduce electrical resistance, making them suitable for producing antistatic packaging for electronics, automotive, or chemical industries. These materials may be biodegradable biopolymers like polylactic acid (PLA) and cellulose acetate (CA) or non-biodegradable petrochemical plastics such as polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Antistatic solutions are also used in construction supplies made from PVC or rubber, especially in chemical plants, gas stations, or coal mines.

How many types of antistatic additives are there?

The family of antistatic additives is broad. They include ionic, non-ionic, conductive polymers, phosphorus-based additives, and carbon-based materials. In this article, we focus on the latter—specifically, carbon black, graphite, and most notably, graphene.

“According to ASTM D257-78, the surface resistivity of antistatic materials ranges from 1.0×10⁵ to 1.0×10¹² Ω/sq.”

Graphene is a carbon nanostructure with exceptional electrical conductivity (0.96 × 10⁸ Ω·m⁻¹), making it a powerful antistatic agent. Unlike graphite—a 3D carbon structure made of millions of graphene layers—and carbon black, which is amorphous and tends to form large aggregates, graphene has a well-organized sheet-like structure with a high surface area accessible on both sides. This allows it to interact intimately with other molecules and modify the properties of many materials, particularly polymers—not only by reducing static, but also by enhancing mechanical strength, thermal resistance, and barrier properties.

Technically, graphene is composed solely of carbon atoms. But in practice, there are as many types of graphene as there are production methods—whether producing pristine graphene, graphene oxide (GO), or reduced graphene oxide (rGO)—each potentially functionalized during or after production. These functionalizations are often necessary to improve graphene’s interaction with specific polymer matrices and to impart desired properties, such as antistatic behavior.

To integrate graphene into PLA used in antistatic packaging, plasticizers like thymol, polyethylene glycol (PEG), or dibutyl sebacate (DBS) can serve as carriers—not just to reduce resistivity but also to enhance mechanical strength and barrier properties. Literature reports show that graphene in PLA can increase electrical conductivity from 1.39E-12 S/cm to 2.83E-4 S/cm. For antistatic rubber flooring, graphene can be functionalized with zinc methacrylate to reduce resistivity by up to three orders of magnitude.

Another critical factor is graphene’s proper dispersion and integration into the host matrix—something that varies depending on the material. For rubber, graphene can be functionalized with 3-glycidyloxypropyltrimethoxysilane, a coupling agent that bonds organic and inorganic materials. For PET, GO can be functionalized with p-phenylenediamine (PPD), which improves dispersion, thermal stability, and boosts antistatic performance by up to eight orders of magnitude.

In the case of cellulose acetate (CA), a biodegradable polymer gaining popularity in packaging, direct functionalization of graphene with CA molecules during synthesis improves both dispersion and static dissipation—lowering surface resistivity from 1.09×10¹² Ω/sq to 1.51×10⁹ Ω/sq. A similar strategy applies to PVC, using dioctyl phthalate (DOP), a plasticizer that can assist during graphite exfoliation to create a graphene more compatible with PVC and reduce resistivity from 10¹⁶ Ω-cm to 2.5 × 10⁶ Ω/sq.

Clearly, graphene represents a technological leap forward in the development of advanced plastics. Its capacity as an effective antistatic additive—along with its multifunctional benefits—makes it a key material for driving innovation in this field. However, its performance depends heavily on selecting the right type of graphene, the functionalization process, and its integration into the polymer matrix. As research continues, graphene is becoming an increasingly vital solution for meeting the safety, performance, and sustainability demands of the plastics industry.

Written by: EF/DHS

References

1. aif M. Jaseem and Nadia A. Ali. Antistatic packaging of plasticized biodegradable polylactic acid /graphene nancomposites. Pak. J. Biotechnol. Vol. 16 (2) 81-90 (2019)
2. Josiani Aparecida da Silva, et al., The combined effect of plasticizers and graphene on properties of poly(lactic acid), Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2018, 135, 46745.
3. Saif M. Jaseem and Nadia A. Ali Antistatic packaging of carbon black on plastizers biodegradable polylactic acid nanocomposites 2019 J. Phys.: Conf. Ser. 1279 012046
4. Zhaorui Meng, et al.,  Grafting macromolecular chains on the surface of graphene oxide through crosslinker for antistatic and thermally stable polyethylene terephthalate nanocomposites. 2022, RSC Advances, 12, 52, 33329.
5. Zijun Gao et al., Graphene nanoplatelet/cellulose acetate flm with enhanced antistatic, thermal dissipative and mechanical properties for packaging, Cellulose (2023) 30:4499
6. Zi-Bo Wei, et. al., Antistatic PVC-graphene Composite through Plasticizer-mediatedExfoliation of Graphite, chinese J. Polym. Sci. 2018, 36, 1361

The ingredient that will transform the plastics industry:

Discover the benefits of Graphenemex graphene masterbatches as a nucleation agent

The plastics industry constantly demands new reinforcements or additives that allow the improvement of plastic materials, both for commercial and engineering use. In recent years, the use of graphene and its derivatives (graphene oxide, GO) has been promoted as new reinforcements for different polymer matrices.

Graphene is a nanomaterial (nanometric particle) that has extraordinary electrical, optical, thermal properties and high mechanical resistance. The properties of graphene are attributed to its structure in the form of two-dimensional (2D) sheets, formed by carbon atoms linked in a hexagonal manner and a thickness of one carbon atom.

The incorporation of graphene materials in polymers allows the development of polymeric compounds with greater mechanical resistance, greater impact resistance, resistance to UV radiation and greater thermal stability, among other properties. This allows obtaining better materials, with great potential and a wide range of applications for different sectors (automotive, aerospace, electronics or packaging).

In general when we talk about traditional polymeric compounds, they are materials that contain a quantity (~40%) of reinforcement in the polymeric matrix. In contrast, polymeric compounds with graphene (nanocomposites), graphene improves the properties of the polymer with the use of low concentrations (<2% weight), as reinforcement. Various investigations have shown that polymers functionalized with graphene materials provide improvements in mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties. For example in:

• Polypropylene / Graphene compounds, showed an increase in flexural modulus (30%) and an increase in impact resistance (40%) compared to other commercial composites.
• Polyethylene / Graphene compound, improves tensile strength (17%), flexural strength and rupture strength (66%).
• Polystyrene/graphene compounds, showed an increase in electrical conductivity at room temperature from 0.1 to 1 S/m.

In addition to what was mentioned above, it is important to indicate that graphene materials function as nucleation agents in semicrystalline polymers. One of the most important characteristics of semicrystalline polymers is the degree of crystallinity. Many properties are influenced by the degree of crystallinity of the polymers.

While crystallinity in metals and ceramics implies the arrangement or arrangement of atoms and ions, in polymers it implies the arrangement of molecules and, therefore, the complexity is greater. Polymer crystallinity can be thought of as the packing of molecular chains to produce an ordered atomic arrangement. Because polymer molecules are large and complex, they are often partially crystalline (semi-crystalline) with scattered crystalline regions within an amorphous material. In the amorphous region, disordered chains appear, a very common condition due to twists, folds and folds of the chains that prevent the ordering of each segment of each chain.

In general, few polymers have a sufficient structure to crystallize and even in these cases, it is never possible to achieve 100% crystalline structure and the degree of crystallization (Xc) must be determined, that is, the fraction of the polymer that presents a crystalline structure in relation to the total polymer, the rest will be amorphous.

The general tendency of the addition of nucleating agents in polymeric matrices is the acceleration or retardation of crystallization, changes in the size of the spherulites, changes in the morphology and in some cases changes in the crystal structure. If we focus on the effect of graphene materials on the crystallinity of polymers, we can summarize that; Graphene materials make it possible to control the size of spherulites (crystal growth) in polymeric compounds, which leads to controlling the crystalline zones, which are responsible for mechanical resistance, and the amorphous zones (associated with flexibility and elasticity). of the material). In addition to improving interfacial adhesion in polymer matrices with polar groups, such as nylon 6,6. On the other hand, another advantage of graphene materials as a nucleating agent in polymeric compounds is that the crystallization temperature (Tc) increases as the amount of graphene increases because the crystallization of the melt is promoted, that is, Less energy is needed to cool the molten polymer, saving time and energy.

Currently Energeia – Graphenemex®, a leading Mexican company in Latin America in research and production of graphene materials for the development of applications at an industrial level, through its Graphenergy Masterbatch line, has developed and sells a wide range of masterbatches with graphene, based on various polymers, such as PP, HDPE, LDPE, PET and PA6. Our Masterbatches are granular materials that act as multifunctional reinforcements and effective nucleating agents.

References

1. Gong, L., Yin, B., Li, L., & Yang, M. (2015). Nylon-6/Graphene composites modified through polymeric modification of graphene. Composites Part B: Engineering, 73, 49–56.
2. Fabiola Navarro-Pardo, Gonzalo Martínez-Barrera, Ana Laura Martínez-Hernández, Víctor M. Castaño. Effects on the Thermo-Mechanical and Crystallinity Properties of Nylon 6,6 Electrospun Fibres Reinforced with One Dimensional (1D) and Two Dimensional (2D) Carbon. Materials 2013, 6.
3. Zhang, F.; Peng, X.; Yan, W.; Peng, Z.; Shen, Y. Nonisothermal crystallization kinetics of in-situ nylon 6/graphene composites by differential scanning calorimetry. J. Polym. Sci. Part B. Polym. Phys. 2011, 49, 1381–1388.
4. Yun, Y.S.; Bae, Y.H.; Kim, D.H.; Lee, J.Y.; Chin, I.J.; Jin, HJ. Reinforcing effects of adding alkylated graphene oxide to polypropylene. Carbon 2011, 49, 3553–3559.
5. Cheng, S.; Chen, X.; Hsuan, Y.G.; Li, C.Y. Reduced graphene oxide induced polyethylene crystallization in solution and composites. Macromolecules 2012, 45, 993–1000.